X-ray diffraction | Wikipedia audio article

This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallography 00:04:22 1 History 00:04:32 1.1 Early scientific history of crystals and X-rays 00:08:53 1.2 X-ray diffraction 00:13:40 1.3 Scattering 00:16:16 1.4 Development from 1912 to 1920 00:19:58 1.5 Cultural and aesthetic importance 00:21:34 2 Contributions to chemistry and material science 00:25:33 2.1 Mineralogy and metallurgy 00:27:25 2.2 Early organic and small biological molecules 00:28:52 2.3 Biological macromolecular crystallography 00:32:00 3 Relationship to other scattering techniques 00:32:11 3.1 Elastic vs. inelastic scattering 00:34:08 3.2 Other X-ray techniques 00:36:23 3.3 Electron and neutron diffraction 00:39:51 4 Methods 00:40:01 4.1 Overview of single-crystal X-ray diffraction 00:41:23 4.1.1 Procedure 00:43:16 4.1.2 Limitations 00:45:14 4.2 Crystallization 00:51:58 4.3 Data collection 00:52:07 4.3.1 Mounting the crystal 00:54:55 4.3.2 X-ray sources 00:55:04 4.3.2.1 Rotating anode 00:57:57 4.3.2.2 Synchrotron radiation 01:00:10 4.3.2.3 Free electron laser 01:01:22 4.3.3 Recording the reflections 01:04:26 4.4 Data analysis 01:04:36 4.4.1 Crystal symmetry, unit cell, and image scaling 01:07:53 4.4.2 Initial phasing 01:11:15 4.4.3 Model building and phase refinement 01:13:54 4.4.4 Disorder 01:14:50 4.4.5 Applied computational data analysis 01:16:32 4.5 Deposition of the structure 01:17:19 5 Diffraction theory 01:22:25 5.1 Intuitive understanding by Bragg's law 01:24:34 5.2 Scattering as a Fourier transform 01:32:03 5.3 Friedel and Bijvoet mates 01:41:53 5.4 Ewald's sphere 01:42:06 5.5 Patterson function 01:43:54 5.6 Advantages of a crystal 01:46:49 6 Nobel Prizes involving X-ray crystallography 01:49:03 7 Applications of X-ray diffraction 01:49:16 7.1 X-ray method for investigation of drugs 01:50:37 7.2 X-ray method for investigation of textile fibers and polymers 01:51:35 7.3 X-ray method for investigation of bones 01:52:55 7.4 Integrated circuits 01:53:45 8 See also Listening is a more natural way of learning, when compared to reading. Written language only began at around 3200 BC, but spoken language has existed long ago. Learning by listening is a great way to: - increases imagination and understanding - improves your listening skills - improves your own spoken accent - learn while on the move - reduce eye strain Now learn the vast amount of general knowledge available on Wikipedia through audio (audio article). You could even learn subconsciously by playing the audio while you are sleeping! If you are planning to listen a lot, you could try using a bone conduction headphone, or a standard speaker instead of an earphone. Listen on Google Assistant through Extra Audio: https://assistant.google.com/services/invoke/uid/0000001a130b3f91 Other Wikipedia audio articles at: https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=wikipedia+tts Upload your own Wikipedia articles through: https://github.com/nodef/wikipedia-tts Speaking Rate: 0.7648268301146343 Voice name: en-US-Wavenet-D "I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think." - Socrates SUMMARY ======= X-ray crystallography (XRC) is a technique used for determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline structure causes a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions. By measuring the angles and intensities of these diffracted beams, a crystallographer can produce a three-dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal. From this electron density, the mean positions of the atoms in the crystal can be determined, as well as their chemical bonds, their crystallographic disorder, and various other information. Since many materials can form crystals—such as salts, metals, minerals, semiconductors, as well as various inorganic, organic, and biological molecules—X-ray crystallography has been fundamental in the development of many scientific fields. In its first decades of use, this method determined the size of atoms, the lengths and types of chemical bonds, and the atomic-scale differences among various materials, especially minerals and alloys. The method also revealed the structure and function of many biological molecules, including vitamins, drugs, proteins and nucleic acids such as DNA. X-ray crystallography is still the primary method for characterizing the atomic structure of new materials and in discerning materials that appear similar by other experiments. X-ray crystal structures can also account for unusual electronic or elastic properties of a material, shed light on chemical interactions and processes, or serve as the basis for designing pharmaceuticals against diseases. In a single-crystal X-ray diffraction measurement, a crystal is mounted on a goniometer. The goniometer is used to position the crystal at selected orientations. The crystal is illuminated with a finely focused monochromatic beam of X-rays, ...